Trying again and searching ahead: contributions of electron microscopy to the structural cellbiology of gametes and fertilization
Mammalian gametes-the sperm and the egg-represent reverse extremes of mobile group and scale. Finding out the ultrastructure of gametes is essential to understanding their interactions, and learn how to manipulate them so as to both encourage or forestall their union. Right here, we survey the distinguished electron microscopy (EM) methods, with an emphasis on issues for making use of them to check mammalian gametes.
We overview how standard EM has supplied vital perception into gamete ultrastructure, but in addition how the cruel pattern preparation strategies required preclude understanding at a very molecular degree. We current current developments in cryo-electron tomography that present a possibility to picture cells in a near-native state and at unprecedented ranges of element.
New and rising mobile EM methods are poised to rekindle exploration of elementary questions in mammalian copy, particularly phenomena that contain complicated membrane remodelling and protein reorganization. These strategies may also permit novel traces of enquiry into issues of sensible significance, akin to investigating unexplained causes of human infertility and enhancing assisted reproductive applied sciences for biodiversity conservation.
Twin Results of Non-Coding RNAs (ncRNAs) in Most cancers Stem Cell Biology
The identification of most cancers stem cells (CSCs) as initiators of carcinogenesis has revolutionized the period of most cancers analysis and our notion for the illness therapy choices. Further CSC options, together with self-renewal and migratory and invasive capabilities, have additional justified these cells as putative diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic targets.
Given the CSC plasticity, the identification of CSC-related biomarkers has been a severe burden in CSC characterization and therapeutic concentrating on. Over the previous a long time, a compelling quantity of proof has demonstrated crucial regulatory features of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) on the unique options of CSCs.
We now know that ncRNAs might intervene with signaling pathways, important for CSC phenotype upkeep, akin to Notch, Wnt, and Hedgehog. Right here, we talk about the multifaceted contribution of microRNAs (miRNAs), lengthy non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and round RNAs (circRNAs), as consultant ncRNA lessons, in sustaining the CSC-like traits, in addition to the underlying molecular mechanisms of their motion in varied CSC sorts. We additional talk about the usage of CSC-related ncRNAs as putative biomarkers of excessive diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic worth.
Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Human Plasminogen in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Human Plasminogen in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: Cell Biolabs? Human Plasminogen ELISA Kit is an enzyme immunoassay developed for the detection and quantitation of human plasminogen in plasma, serum or other biological fluid samples. The kit has a detection sensitivity limit of 150 pg/mL human plasminogen. Each kit provides sufficient reagents to perform up to 96 assays including standard curve and unknown samples.
Description: This is Double-antibody Sandwich Chemiluminescent immunoassay for detection of Human Plasminogen (Plg) in serum, plasma, tissue homogenates, cell lysates, cell culture supernates and other biological fluids.
Description: This is Double-antibody Sandwich Chemiluminescent immunoassay for detection of Human Plasminogen (Plg) in serum, plasma, tissue homogenates, cell lysates, cell culture supernates and other biological fluids.
Description: This is Double-antibody Sandwich Chemiluminescent immunoassay for detection of Human Plasminogen (Plg) in serum, plasma, tissue homogenates, cell lysates, cell culture supernates and other biological fluids.
Description: This is Double-antibody Sandwich Chemiluminescent immunoassay for detection of Human Plasminogen (Plg) in serum, plasma, tissue homogenates, cell lysates, cell culture supernates and other biological fluids.
Description: Double-antibody Sandwich chemiluminescent immunoassay for detection of Human Plasminogen (Plg)Serum, plasma, tissue homogenates, cell lysates, cell culture supernates and other biological fluids
Description: Plasminogen is a single chain glycoprotein zymogen that is synthesized in the liver and circulated in plasma with a molecular weight of 90 kDa. The N- terminal portion of the molecule is made up of five kringle domains that bind to fibrin. The native molecule has an amino-terminal glutamic acid, known as glu-plasminogen, but this can undergo proteolytic cleavage by plasmin to lys- plasminogen (1). The inactive proenzyme plasminogen is converted to the active enzyme plasmin that ultimately digests fibrin. Tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) or urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) catalyzes the activation of plasminogen, while plasminogen activator inhibitors (PAIs) inhibits the activation (2).
Description: A sandwich quantitative ELISA assay kit for detection of Human Plasminogen (Plg) in samples from serum, plasma, tissue homogenates, cell lysates, cell culture supernates or other biological fluids.
Description: A sandwich quantitative ELISA assay kit for detection of Human Plasminogen (Plg) in samples from serum, plasma, tissue homogenates, cell lysates, cell culture supernates or other biological fluids.
Description: Quantitative competitive ELISA kit for measuring Human Plasminogen, Plg in samples from serum, plasma, tissue homogenates. A new trial version of the kit, which allows you to test the kit in your application at a reasonable price.
Description: Quantitative competitive ELISA kit for measuring Human Plasminogen, Plg in samples from serum, plasma, tissue homogenates. Now available in a cost efficient pack of 5 plates of 96 wells each, conveniently packed along with the other reagents in 5 separate kits.
Description: This is Double-antibody Sandwich Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Human Plasminogen (Plg) in plasma, tissue homogenates, cell lysates, cell culture supernates and other biological fluids.
Description: This is Double-antibody Sandwich Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Human Plasminogen (Plg) in plasma, tissue homogenates, cell lysates, cell culture supernates and other biological fluids.
Description: This is Double-antibody Sandwich Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Human Plasminogen (Plg) in plasma, tissue homogenates, cell lysates, cell culture supernates and other biological fluids.
Description: This is Double-antibody Sandwich Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Human Plasminogen (Plg) in plasma, tissue homogenates, cell lysates, cell culture supernates and other biological fluids.
Description: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay based on the Double-antibody Sandwich method for detection of Human Plasminogen (Plg) in samples from plasma, tissue homogenates, cell lysates, cell culture supernates and other biological fluids with no significant corss-reactivity with analogues from other species.
Description: Recombinant tPA is a disulfide-linked monomer protein consisting 527 amino acid residue subunits. and migrates due to glycosylation as an approximately 60kDa protein under non-reducing and reducing conditions in SDS-PAGE. Optimized DNA sequence encoding Human Tissue Plasminogen Activator mature chain was expressed in CHO cells.
Description: Recombinant tPA is a disulfide-linked monomer protein consisting 527 amino acid residue subunits. and migrates due to glycosylation as an approximately 60kDa protein under non-reducing and reducing conditions in SDS-PAGE. Optimized DNA sequence encoding Human Tissue Plasminogen Activator mature chain was expressed in CHO cells.
Description: A competitive ELISA for quantitative measurement of Human Plasminogen activator in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: A competitive ELISA for quantitative measurement of Human Plasminogen activator in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: A competitive ELISA for quantitative measurement of Human Plasminogen activator in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: A sandwich ELISA kit for detection of Plasminogen from Human in samples from blood, serum, plasma, cell culture fluid and other biological fluids.
Description: Description of target: Plasmin dissolves the fibrin of blood clots and acts as a proteolytic factor in a variety of other processes including embryonic development, tissue remodeling, tumor invasion, and inflammation. In ovulation, weakens the walls of the Graafian follicle. It activates the urokinase-type plasminogen activator, collagenases and several complement zymogens, such as C1 and C5. Cleavage of fibronectin and laminin leads to cell detachment and apoptosis. Also cleaves fibrin, thrombospondin and von Willebrand factor. Its role in tissue remodeling and tumor invasion may be modulated by CSPG4. Binds to cells.;Species reactivity: Human;Application: ELISA;Assay info: Assay Methodology: Quantitative Sandwich ELISA;Sensitivity: 2.114 ng/ml
Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Human Plasminogen activator inhibitor in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Human Plasminogen activator inhibitor in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Human Plasminogen activator inhibitor in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: Plasminogen (PLG) is a circulating zymogen that is converted to the active enzyme plasmin by cleavage of the peptide bond between arg-560 and val-561, which is mediated by urokinase (PLAU) and tissue plasminogen activator (PLAT). The main function of plasmin is to dissolve fibrin (see, e.g., FGA) clots. Plasmin, like trypsin, belongs to the family of serine proteinases. Defects in this gene are likely a cause of thrombophilia and ligneous conjunctivitis.
Human Plasminogen Activator, Tissue (tPA) CLIA Kit
Description: A sandwich quantitative ELISA assay kit for detection of Human Plasminogen Activator, Tissue (tPA) in samples from serum, plasma or other biological fluids.
Human Plasminogen Activator, Tissue (tPA) ELISA Kit
Description: A sandwich quantitative ELISA assay kit for detection of Human Plasminogen Activator, Tissue (tPA) in samples from serum, plasma or other biological fluids.
Human Plasminogen Activator, Tissue (tPA) ELISA Kit
Description: This is Double-antibody Sandwich Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Human Plasminogen Activator, Tissue (tPA) in serum, plasma, tissue homogenates and other biological fluids.
Human Plasminogen Activator, Tissue (tPA) ELISA Kit
Description: This is Double-antibody Sandwich Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Human Plasminogen Activator, Tissue (tPA) in serum, plasma, tissue homogenates and other biological fluids.
Human Plasminogen Activator, Tissue (tPA) ELISA Kit
Description: This is Double-antibody Sandwich Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Human Plasminogen Activator, Tissue (tPA) in serum, plasma, tissue homogenates and other biological fluids.
Human Plasminogen Activator, Tissue (tPA) ELISA Kit
Description: This is Double-antibody Sandwich Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Human Plasminogen Activator, Tissue (tPA) in serum, plasma, tissue homogenates and other biological fluids.
Human Plasminogen Activator, Tissue (tPA) ELISA Kit
Description: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay based on the Double-antibody Sandwich method for detection of Human Plasminogen Activator, Tissue (tPA) in samples from serum, plasma, tissue homogenates and other biological fluids with no significant corss-reactivity with analogues from other species.
Human Plasminogen Activator, Tissue (tPA) ELISA Kit
Description: A competitive ELISA for quantitative measurement of Human Urokinase plasminogen activator in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: A competitive ELISA for quantitative measurement of Human Urokinase plasminogen activator in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: A competitive ELISA for quantitative measurement of Human Urokinase plasminogen activator in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Human Plasminogen Activator, Tissue, PLAT ELISA Kit
Description: This assay is a sandwich Enzyme Linked-Immuno-Sorbent Assay (ELISA). It is developed for quantitative measurement of Human PLAT in serum, plasma and other biological fluids.
Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Canine Plasminogen in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Canine Plasminogen in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Canine Plasminogen in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Rat Plasminogen in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Rat Plasminogen in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Rat Plasminogen in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Porcine Plasminogen in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Porcine Plasminogen in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Porcine Plasminogen in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. This is a high quality ELISA kit developped for optimal performance with samples from the particular species.
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Transcriptomic and Proteomic Evaluation of Clear Cell Foci (CCF) within the Human Non-Cirrhotic Liver Identifies A number of Differentially Expressed Genes and Proteins with Capabilities in Most cancers CellBiology and Glycogen Metabolism
Clear cell foci (CCF) of the liver are thought of to be pre-neoplastic lesions of hepatocellular adenomas and carcinomas. They’re hallmarked by glycogen overload and activation of AKT (v-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog)/mTOR (mammalian goal of rapamycin)-signaling. Right here, we report the transcriptome and proteome of CCF extracted from human liver biopsies by laser seize microdissection.
We discovered 14 genes and 22 proteins differentially expressed in CCF and the vast majority of these have been expressed at decrease ranges in CCF. Utilizing immunohistochemistry, the diminished expressions of STBD1 (starch-binding domain-containing protein 1), USP28 (ubiquitin-specific peptidase 28), monad/WDR92 (WD repeat area 92), CYB5B (Cytochrome b5 kind B), and HSPE1 (10 kDa warmth shock protein, mitochondrial) have been validated in CCF in unbiased specimens.
Knockout of Stbd1, the gene coding for Starch-binding domain-containing protein 1, in mice didn’t have a big impact on liver glycogen ranges, indicating that extra elements are required for glycogen overload in CCF. Usp28 knockout mice didn’t present adjustments in glycogen storage in diethylnitrosamine-induced liver carcinoma, demonstrating that CCF are distinct from this sort of most cancers mannequin, regardless of the decreased USP28 expression.
Furthermore, our information signifies that decreased USP28 expression is a novel issue contributing to the pre-neoplastic character of CCF. In abstract, our work identifies a number of novel and surprising candidates which are differentially expressed in CCF and which have features in glycogen metabolism and tumorigenesis.
Outcomes of Kifunensine on Manufacturing and N-Glycosylation Modification of Butyrylcholinesterase in a Transgenic Rice CellCulture Bioreactor
The manufacturing and N-glycosylation of recombinant human butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), a model extraordinarily glycosylated therapeutic protein, in a transgenic rice cell suspension custom dealt with with kifunensine, a robust α-mannosidase I inhibitor, was studied in a 5 L bioreactor.
A media commerce was carried out at day 7 of cultivation by eradicating spent sugar-rich medium (NB+S) and together with current sugar-free (NB-S) medium to induce the rice α-amylase 3D (RAmy3D) promoter to supply rice recombinant human BChE (rrBChE).
Using a 1.25X-concentrated sugar-free medium together with an 80% lowered working amount by way of the media commerce led to an entire energetic rrBChE manufacturing diploma of 79 ± 2 µg (g FW)-1 or 7.5 ± 0.4 mg L-1 throughout the presence of kifunensine, which was 1.5-times higher than our earlier bioreactor runs using common sugar-free (NB-S) media with no kifunensine treatment.
Importantly, the amount of secreted energetic rrBChE in custom medium was enhanced throughout the presence of kifunensine, comprising 44% of your entire energetic rrBChE at day 5 following induction. Coomassie-stained SDS-PAGE gel and Western blot analyses revealed utterly completely different electrophoretic migration of purified rrBChE bands with and with out kifunensine treatment, which was attributed to utterly completely different N-glycoforms. N-Glycosylation analysis confirmed significantly elevated oligomannose glycans (Man5/6/7/8) in rrBChE dealt with with kifunensine compared with controls. Nonetheless, the mass-transfer limitation of kifunensine was seemingly the principle goal for incomplete inhibition of α-mannosidase I on this bioreactor look at.
Description: Retroviral vectors are useful for delivering genes of interest into a target cells where integration into the genome is desired. However, traditional retroviral expression technologies result in low viral titers, making gene expression studies challenging. Platinum Retroviral Expression Systems incorporate superior packaging cell lines and vector technologies to produce high-titer virus with a single plasmid transfection. This system includes our exclusive Platinum-E Packaging cell line, which contains the gag and pol genes and an ecotropic envelope protein for viral packaging. Simply clone your gene of interest into the vector provided and transfect into the packaging cells.
Description: Retroviral vectors are useful for delivering genes of interest into a target cells where integration into the genome is desired. However, traditional retroviral expression technologies result in low viral titers, making gene expression studies challenging. Platinum Retroviral Expression Systems incorporate superior packaging cell lines and vector technologies to produce high-titer virus with a single plasmid transfection. This system includes our exclusive Platinum-GP Packaging cell line which contains the gag and pol genes necessary for viral packaging. Simply clone your gene of interest into the vector provided and co-transfect into the packaging cells along with the included VSVG plasmid.
Description: Retroviral vectors are useful for delivering genes of interest into a target cells where integration into the genome is desired. However, traditional retroviral expression technologies result in low viral titers, making gene expression studies challenging. Platinum Retroviral Expression Systems incorporate superior packaging cell lines and vector technologies to produce high-titer virus with a single plasmid transfection. This system includes our exclusive Platinum-A Packaging cell line, which contains the gag and pol genes and an amphotropic envelope protein for viral packaging. Simply clone your gene of interest into the vector provided and transfect into the packaging cells.
Description: Retroviral vectors are useful for delivering genes of interest into a target cells where integration into the genome is desired. However, traditional retroviral expression technologies result in low viral titers, making gene expression studies challenging. Platinum Retroviral Expression Systems incorporate superior packaging cell lines and vector technologies to produce high-titer virus with a single plasmid transfection. This system includes our exclusive Platinum-E Packaging cell line, which contains the gag and pol genes and an ecotropic envelope protein for viral packaging. Simply clone your gene of interest into the vector provided and transfect into the packaging cells.
Description: Retroviral vectors are useful for delivering genes of interest into a target cells where integration into the genome is desired. However, traditional retroviral expression technologies result in low viral titers, making gene expression studies challenging. Platinum Retroviral Expression Systems incorporate superior packaging cell lines and vector technologies to produce high-titer virus with a single plasmid transfection. This system includes our exclusive Platinum-GP Packaging cell line which contains the gag and pol genes necessary for viral packaging. Simply clone your gene of interest into the vector provided and co-transfect into the packaging cells along with the included VSVG plasmid.
Human Retroviral-like aspartic protease 1 (ASPRV1)
Description: Retroviral vectors are useful for delivering genes of interest into a target cells where integration into the genome is desired. However, traditional retroviral expression technologies result in low viral titers, making gene expression studies challenging. Platinum Retroviral Expression Systems incorporate superior packaging cell lines and vector technologies to produce high-titer virus with a single plasmid transfection. This system includes our exclusive Platinum-A Packaging cell line, which contains the gag and pol genes and an amphotropic envelope protein for viral packaging. Simply clone your gene of interest into the vector provided and transfect into the packaging cells.
Description: Conventional cells used for retrovirus packaging, such as those based on NIH3T3 cells, have limited stability and produce relatively low yields of retrovirus, mainly due to the poor expression of retroviral structure proteins (gag, pol and env) in the cells. The Platinum Retroviral Packaging Cell Lines are based on the 293T cell line. They exhibit longer stability and produce higher yields of retroviral structure proteins. Plat-E cells contain gag, pol and env genes, allowing retroviral packaging with a single plasmid transfection.
Description: Retroviral vectors are useful for delivering genes of interest into a target cells where integration into the genome is desired. However, traditional retroviral expression technologies result in low viral titers, making gene expression studies challenging. Platinum Retroviral Expression Systems incorporate superior packaging cell lines and vector technologies to produce high-titer virus with a single plasmid transfection. This system includes our exclusive Platinum-E Packaging cell line, which contains the gag and pol genes and an ecotropic envelope protein for viral packaging. Simply clone your gene of interest into the vector provided and transfect into the packaging cells.
Description: Retroviral vectors are useful for delivering genes of interest into a target cells where integration into the genome is desired. However, traditional retroviral expression technologies result in low viral titers, making gene expression studies challenging. Platinum Retroviral Expression Systems incorporate superior packaging cell lines and vector technologies to produce high-titer virus with a single plasmid transfection. This system includes our exclusive Platinum-GP Packaging cell line which contains the gag and pol genes necessary for viral packaging. Simply clone your gene of interest into the vector provided and co-transfect into the packaging cells along with the included VSVG plasmid.
Description: Conventional cells used for retrovirus packaging, such as those based on NIH3T3 cells, have limited stability and produce relatively low yields of retrovirus, mainly due to the poor expression of retroviral structure proteins (gag, pol and env) in the cells. The Platinum Retroviral Packaging Cell Lines are based on the 293T cell line. They exhibit longer stability and produce higher yields of retroviral structure proteins. Plat-GP cells contain the gag and pol genes required for retroviral packaging; an expression vector is co-transfected with a VSVG envelope vector.
Description: Conventional cells used for retrovirus packaging, such as those based on NIH3T3 cells, have limited stability and produce relatively low yields of retrovirus, mainly due to the poor expression of retroviral structure proteins (gag, pol and env) in the cells. The Platinum Retroviral Packaging Cell Lines are based on the 293T cell line. They exhibit longer stability and produce higher yields of retroviral structure proteins. Plat-A cells contain gag, pol and env genes, allowing retroviral packaging with a single plasmid transfection.
Description: Retroviral vectors are useful for delivering genes of interest into a target cells where integration into the genome is desired. However, traditional retroviral expression technologies result in low viral titers, making gene expression studies challenging. Platinum Retroviral Expression Systems incorporate superior packaging cell lines and vector technologies to produce high-titer virus with a single plasmid transfection. This system includes our exclusive Platinum-A Packaging cell line, which contains the gag and pol genes and an amphotropic envelope protein for viral packaging. Simply clone your gene of interest into the vector provided and transfect into the packaging cells.
Recombinant human Retroviral-like aspartic protease 1
Description: ASPRV1 Human Recombinant produced in E.coli is a single, non-glycosylated polypeptide chain containing 159 amino acids (191-326) and having a molecular mass of 17.2kDa.;ASPRV1 is fused to a 23 amino acid His-tag at N-terminus & purified by proprietary chromatographic techniques.
Description: Our QuickTiter Retrovirus Quantitation Kit provides a quick method for determining retroviral titer. This assay measures the viral nucleic acid content of your retrovirus, and may be performed either before or after purification of your virus.
Description: Mammalian cells have developed multiple strategies to limit retroviral infection including numerous proteins termed restriction factors that restrict retrovirus replication and infection. One such protein is TRIM5, a member of a broad family of otherwise unrelated proteins whose longest isoform, TRIM5α, enables resistance to infection by HIV-1 through rapid degradation of HIV-1 Gag polyproteins. Another protein, APOBEC3G (and to a lesser extent APOBEC3F) can be incorporated into HIV-1 virions and induce hypermutation in the newly synthesized viral DNA and thus destabilize the viral genome. This innate mechanism of retroviral resistance is counteracted by the HIV-1 Vif protein by inducing the ubiquitization and degradation of APOBEC3G; a single amino acid substitution (D128K) blocks APOBEC3G depletion without affecting its inhibitory activity. The human uracil-DNA glycosylase UNG2 can also be incorporated into the HIV-1virion, indicating that it is required to remove uracils from the viral genome. It has been suggested that the UNG2 contributes to the APOBEC3G-mediated loss of infectivity by generating abasic sites in the viral genome. UNG1, the mitochondrial form of UNG, is transcribed from the same gene as UNG2 through differentially regulated promoters and alternative splicing, but does not appear to have anti-retroviral properties. AID, a protein related to APOBEC3 also possesses cytidine deaminase activity that can be blocked by the HIV-1 Vif protein in E. coli, but so far it appears unlikely that AID deaminates dC to dU residues in HIV cDNA as does APOBEC3G.;;For images please see PDF data sheet
